The Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster

At 11:38 a.m. on Tuesday, January 28, 1986, the Space Shuttle Challenger launched from the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral, Florida. As the world watched on TV, the Challenger soared into the sky and then, shockingly, exploded just 73 seconds after take-off. All seven members of the crew, including social studies teacher Sharon Christa McAuliffe, died in the disaster. An investigation of the accident discovered that the O-rings of the right solid rocket booster had malfunctioned. Crew of the Challenger Christa McAuliffe (Teacher in Space)Dick Scobee (Commander)Mike Smith (Pilot)Ron McNair (Mission Specialist)Judy Resnik (Mission Specialist)Ellison Onizuka (Mission Specialist)Gregory Jarvis (Payload Specialist) Should the Challenger Have Launched? Around 8:30 a.m. on Tuesday, January 28, 1986, in Florida, the seven crew members of the Space Shuttle Challenger were already strapped into their seats. Though they were ready to go, NASA officials were busy deciding whether it was safe enough to launch that day. It had been extremely cold the night before, causing icicles to form under the launch pad. By morning, temperatures were still only 32 ° F. If the shuttle launched that day, it would the coldest day of any shuttle launch. Safety was a huge concern, but NASA officials were also under pressure to get the shuttle into orbit quickly. Weather and malfunctions had already caused many postponements from the original launch date, January 22. If the shuttle didnt launch by February 1, some of the science experiments and business arrangements regarding the satellite would be jeopardized. Plus, millions of people, especially students across the U.S., were waiting and watching for this particular mission to launch. A Teacher on Board Among the crew on board the Challenger that morning was Sharon Christa McAuliffe. McAuliffe, a social studies teacher at Concord High School in New Hampshire, had been chosen from 11,000 applicants to participate in the Teacher in Space Project. President Ronald Reagan created this project in August 1984 in an effort to increase public interest in the U.S. space program. The teacher chosen would become the first private citizen in space. A teacher, a wife, and a mother of two, McAuliffe represented the average, good-natured citizen. She became the face of NASA for nearly a year before the launch, and the public adored her. The Launch A little after 11:00 a.m. on that cold morning, NASA told the crew that launch was a go. At 11:38 a.m., the Space Shuttle Challenger launched from Pad 39-B at the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral, Florida. At first, everything seemed to go well. However, 73 seconds after lift-off, Mission Control heard Pilot Mike Smith say, Uh oh! Then people at Mission Control, observers on the ground, and millions of children and adults across the nation watched as the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded. The nation was shocked. To this day, many remember exactly where they were and what they were doing when they heard that the Challenger had exploded. It remains a defining moment in the 20th century. Search and Recovery An hour after the explosion, search and recovery planes and ships searched for survivors and wreckage. Though some pieces of the shuttle floated on the surface of the Atlantic Ocean, much of it had sunken to the bottom. No survivors were found.  On January 31, 1986, three days after the disaster, a memorial service was held for the fallen heroes. What Went Wrong? Everyone wanted to know what had gone wrong. On February 3, 1986, President Reagan established the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident. Former Secretary of State William Rogers chaired the commission, whose members included Sally Ride, Neil Armstrong, and Chuck Yeager. The Rogers Commission carefully studied pictures, video, and debris from the accident. The Commission determined that the accident was caused by a failure in the O-rings of the right solid rocket booster. O-rings sealed the pieces of the rocket booster together. From multiple uses and especially because of the extreme cold on that day, an O-ring on the right rocket booster had become brittle. Once launched, the weak O-ring allowed fire to escape from the rocket booster. The fire melted a support beam that held the booster in place. The booster, then mobile, hit the fuel tank, causing the explosion. Upon further research, it was determined that there had been multiple, unheeded warnings about the potential problems with the O-rings. The Crew Cabin On March 8, 1986, just over five weeks after the explosion, a search team found the crew cabin; it had not been destroyed in the explosion. The bodies of all seven crew members were found, still strapped into their seats. Autopsies were done but exact cause of death was inconclusive. It is believed that at least some of the crew survived the explosion, since three of four emergency air packs found had been deployed. After the explosion, the crew cabin fell over 50,000 feet and hit the water at approximately 200 miles per hour. No one could have survived the impact.

Definition and Discussion of Mental Grammar

Mental grammar is the  generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce language that other speakers can understand. It is also known as  competence grammar and linguistic competence. It contrasts with linguistic performance, which is the correctness of actual language use according to a languages prescribed rules.   The concept of mental grammar was popularized by American linguist Noam Chomsky in his groundbreaking work  Syntactic Structures (1957). Philippe  Binder and Kenny Smith noted in The Language Phenomenon how important Chomskys work was: This focus on grammar as a mental entity allowed enormous progress to be made in characterizing the structure of languages. Related to this work is  Universal Grammar, or the predisposition for the brain to learn complexities of grammar from an early age, without being implicitly taught all the rules. The study of how the brain actually does this is called neurolinguistics. One way to clarify  mental  or competence  grammar  is to ask a friend a question about a sentence, Pamela J. Sharpe writes in Barrons How to Prepare for the TOEFL IBT. Your friend probably wont know why  its correct, but that friend will know  if  its correct. So one of the features of mental or competence grammar is this incredible sense of correctness and the ability to hear something that sounds odd in a language. Its a subconscious or implicit knowledge of grammar, not learned by rote. In The Handbook of Educational Linguistics,  William C. Ritchie and Tej K. Bhatia note, A central aspect of the knowledge of a particular language variety consists in its grammar—that is, its  implicit  (or tacit or subconscious) knowledge of the rules of pronunciation (phonology), of word structure (morphology), of sentence structure (syntax), of certain aspects of meaning (semantics), and of a  lexicon  or vocabulary. Speakers of a given language variety are said to have an implicit  mental grammar  of that variety consisting of these rules and lexicon. It is this mental grammar that determines in large part the perception and production of speech  utterances. Since the mental grammar plays a role in actual language use, we must conclude that it is represented in the brain in some way.The detailed study of the language users mental grammar is generally regarded as the domain of the discipline of linguistics, whereas the study of the way in which the mental grammar is put to use in the actual comprehension and production of speech in linguistic per formance has been a major concern of  psycholinguistics. (In Monolingual Language Use and Acquisition: An Introduction.) Prior to the early 20th century and previous to Chomsky, it wasnt really studied how humans acquire language or what exactly in ourselves makes us different from animals, which dont use language like we do. It was just classified abstractly that humans have reason, or a rational soul as Descartes put it, which really doesnt explain how we acquire language—especially as babies. Babies and toddlers dont really receive grammar instruction on how to put words together in a sentence, yet they learn their native tongue just by exposure to it. Chomsky worked on what it was that was special about human brains that enabled this learning.

Totalitarian Leaders Stalin, Marx, and Mustapha Mond Essay

In the book Brave New World, the World Controllers control every aspect of life from the color the citizens wear to the job that is assigned to each person. This is an example of a totalitarian government. The word Totalitarian is defined as â€Å"An adjective of or having to do with a government controlled by one political group which suppress all opposition, often with force, and which controls many aspects of people’s lives. A totalitarian government usually regulates what goods are produced by industry, what radio and television programs are broadcast, what books people read, and other severe controls on private life† (Barnhart 2210). There are many practices or philosophies of totalitarian rulers such as no freedom of religion, speech,†¦show more content†¦Stalin like all rulers wanted and needed to gain the trust of the people. Stalin achieved gaining the trust of the people by creating and enhancing the schools, homes, and hospitals (Caulkins 90). B ut there was a down side to the education of the children. This helped the literacy rate rise from nothing to equal to the rate of any western country. The children were taught to read but they did not learn to think independently. Stalin’s rule helped the Soviet Union. Under Stalin the territorial boundaries expanded (Byers 393). Stalin also had to uphold his regime; if you were someone in power like a factory owner, chief of the secret police, or a party official, you were given new cars, clothes and homes to name a few (Caulkins 92). The bureaucracy got the majority of the privileges that no other person could get. But Stalin never let them forget that what he gave he could also take away (Caulkins 92). Though Stalin gave to the people of the Soviet Union, He also ruled using fear. â€Å"Civilian crimes, such as robbery or killing your wife in a fit of rage, were dealt with in an orderly and just fashion. But â€Å"crimes against the State,† no matter how trivi al, carried the threat of death.† (Caulkins 93) Stalin improved the condition of the Soviet Union so well that writers and reporters tried to out praise each other when writing about

Forces Leading to the War of 1812 Free Essays

The war of 1812, supposedly fought over neutral trading rights, was a very peculiar conflict indeed. Britain’s trade restrictions, one of the main causes, were removed two days before the war started; the New Englanders, for whom the war was supposedly fought, opposed it; the most decisive battle, at New Orleans, was fought after the war ended. Before the war began, Britain and France had disrupted US shipping, confiscated American goods, taking US seamen into the British navy, and both sides had blockaded each other’s ports which caused great annoyance to American traders, and Britain’s abduction of American sailors especially caused great uproar and indignation at home. We will write a custom essay sample on Forces Leading to the War of 1812 or any similar topic only for you Order Now These forces led Americans to declare war on Britain in 1812. When the war began, it was being fought by the Americans to address their grievances toward the British. This seemed like a justifiable cause for a war, however not all of the citizens shared the same sense of unity about the political issues the war was being fought over. The US was quite upset about the continuing impressments of American sailors into the British Navy and the seizures of American merchant trading vessels by the British. In a committee report in 1811, congressmen address their complaints against Britain. The British defied an â€Å"incontestable right†, and they captured â€Å"every American vessel† that they could find. In response to these intolerable actions, The president of the United States wishes to declare war against Great Britain. A group of congressman known as the War Hawks desperately desired going to war. One of these â€Å"War Hawks,† John C. Calhoun, agrees with the committee’s report, by saying â€Å"these rights are essentially attacked, and war is the only means of redress. † Hugh Nelson, congressman from Virginia, believed that the war was inevitable and that it would bring the American people together. He stated, â€Å"to demonstrate to the world†¦ hat the people of these state were united, one and indivisible. † This quote demonstrates his thoughts that if the United States were to unite in a strong fashion, it would indeed â€Å"repel all foreign aggression. † President Madison’s Declaration of War coincided directly with the report and the writings of the War Hawks, in that it explained itself by stating, â€Å"We behold our seaf aring citizens still the daily victims of lawless violence†¦ We behold our vessels†¦ wrested from their lawful destinations. † In the War of 1812, many groups had apprehensions to the war at hand. Some, like the War Hawks, used the plight of the New England maritime traders as an excuse to go to war. In reality though, New England was doing better off before the war, because during which it became increasingly difficult to ship goods across the Atlantic and it was impossible to trade with Great Britain. John Randolph, a Representative from Virginia, even went as far as to say that â€Å"maritime rights† had no say in influencing the war. He believed that â€Å"agrarian cupidity† was the true influence that urged the war. By that, Randolph means that men are looking to take the fertile lands of British Canada for themselves, considering that the northern mountains did them no good. When observing the votes for war in the House of Representatives, one might notice a peculiar detail. The agrarian regions of the United states, which includes the Western Frontier, The South and The Agricultural Mid-Atlantic States, have many more yes votes than no votes. Whereas in New England, and the Maritime and Commercial Mid-Atlantic States, the no votes heavily outweighed the yes ones. The Jeffersonians claim that they want war to fight for the â€Å"maritime rights† and yet the Maritime and Commercial States stand out with a majority of no votes. Not a single Federalist voted yes for the congressional vote for war, while a large majority of Democratic-Republicans voted yes for war. Most of these Federalists were also ironically located in New England, but most of the Democratic-Republicans were located in the South and the West. Before the War of 1812, If Americans had been able to put aside their regional selfishness and differences, a declaration of war may not have even been required in the first place. Forces such as disrupted shipping, confiscated goods, and abduction of sailors could have been negotiated over with Great Britain. The United States lacked the unity, discipline, and strength to challenge the British and ended up paying dearly for the declaration of war against them. It is evident in the representatives’ voting that New England and other Maritime regions were against the war. This may suggest that the idea for war was prompted by Democratic-Republicans like the War Hawks, whose motives may have been questionable as mentioned by Randolph. How to cite Forces Leading to the War of 1812, Essay examples

Egypt Mexican Pyramids Essay Example For Students

Egypt Mexican Pyramids Essay For many centuries people have been fascinated by ancient cultures and treasures. During the last two centuries the science of archeology and modern inventions allowed people to get inside of the Egyptian and Mayan pyramids and discover the treasures of Egyptian pharaohs and Mayan rulers. Most of what we know about Egypt we owe to the pyramids. Thanks to Egyptian belief in the afterlife we can now find out about the civilization that existed nearly five thousand years ago. Egyptian culture is not the only culture that left us its heritage in pyramids. In America we find pyramids build by civilizations of Olmec and Maya about 7th century CE. These pyramids had different purposes and usage then the ones in Egypt but they stand as memorials to ancient civilizations as well. Egyptian people believed in life after death. One of the way pharaohs prepared themselves for the afterlife journey was by building a pyramid and putting there all their belongings and riches. Egyptian people believed that pharaoh is the closest person to the God and treated him accordingly. That is the reason for Egyptian tombs being full with the golden jewelry, precious stones and art objects. Most of the time art objects were not considered a treasury but they played their particular role in religious rituals. Jars were holding food and drinks for pharaohs journey, so he would not get hungry and would have food and drinks to offer to the Gods. The figurative sculptures were suppose to accompany Ka spiritual entity in its lonely stay or serve as a twin for the mummy. If something happens to the mummy the ka could use the sculpture of the pharaoh for the revelation. As well as for Egyptians religion was an everyday concern for many of the Maya, whether the dynastic ruler, the zealous priest, or the humble believer. Maya has an extensive religion structure which we can not know in details. Chac and Itzamna are the most famous gods of Mayan culture. Hunahpu and Xbalanque are among the most interesting mythical characters. One of the most crucial gods was Tlaloc, who was worshiped in various guises by the culture of Teotihuacan, the Toltec of Tula, and later Aztecs. The Maya received the cult of Tlaloc during the 4th century more or less. The Cauac Monster, also known as the Witz monster, is a dominant supernatural concept in Maya religion, as are caves, cenotes, and other holy places Maya Civilization pars. 6. The Maya built shrines, temples, and pyramids in honor of their gods, as well as to their kings, who ruled by all-encompassing concept of Divine power. Most of Mayan pyramids are temples to the gods, not the burial tombs as in Egypt. Even though Maya sometimes buried there their rulers they always put the temple on the top of the pyramid. Egyptians had temples near the pyramid or right next to it for the ceremonial services, but it never was placed on top of the structure. Also buildings in both cultures have a lot in common in their visual characteristics they are different structures. Egyptian pyramids originally had smooth equal sides meeting on the top in the perfect apex. Mayan pyramids look like one huge stairway towards the sky. It reminds of earliest Egyptian structures-mastabas, where one layer of stones was put onto another creating the effect of pyramid. Also The Tikal Temple on Great Plaza was originally plastered white. Then the roof comb was painted with reds, blues, and other colors to accent the different areas of sculptural decoration. These roof combs were like giant billboards, with immense portrayals of the enthroned king, larger then life size Cities pars. 3. Egyptians never colored their religious structures. As well as in Egyptian pyramids, the stone used to construct Mayan pyramids is local limestone, obtained from nearby quarries. The ancient Maya had no stone tools but limestone is soft enough that the Maya could utilize chert tools to work the stone in to neat rectangular building blocks. Egyptian pyramids served as huge tombs and they were constructed in such a way so they would stand for thousand years. Egyptians did not know when the spirit would return into the dead body. Pyramids were constructed of rough stone blocks laid in horizontal rows, in a polygonal shape, with triangular sides rising to meet in the apex. Some were originally as high as 750 feet. Egypt EssayBy the Middle Kingdom 2025 B. C the figures had become mummiform in shape, and their inscriptions clearly join the deceased with Osiris, the god of the underworld, who rose to prominence during this period. By late Dynasty XII 1850 B. C. The statuettes original function as residence for the ka has expanded greatly. Although the original identification with the tomb owner was never lost, the figures were seen primarily as workers who performed a service for the deceased, and they became known by the ancient Egyptians as shabits. Rapidly shabit-figures came to represent the deceaseds servants in the afterlife and were so popular that they replaced the model servant statues previously deposited in upper-class graves of the Old and Middle Kingdoms Life sect. 1. One of the most important traditions in the Egyptian culture was the mummification of the dead body. According to Egyptian religion the body had to be intact in order for Ka to return. Mummification of the dead body was a complicated and long process. The famous Greek historian Herodotus reported on the Egyptian practice of mummification: They take first a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the skull is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs; next they make a cut along the flank with a sharp Ethiopian stone, and take out the whole contents of the abdomen, which they then cleanse, washing it throughly with palm wine, and again frequently with an infusion of pounded aromatics. After this they fill the cavity with the purest bruised myrrh, with cassia, and every other sort of spicery except frankincense, and sew up the opening. Herodotus sect. 1 After these procedures were done the body was placed in natrum for saventy days. They put the body into the wooden coffin which was shaped into the man figure. Sometimes the wooden coffin was placed into the golden one decorated by precious stones and paint. In Mayan culture we find no evidences that any techniques of mummification were used. In the humid climate of Central America it is very hard to preserve a dead body for such a long time that is needed for the mummification process. As we can see Mayan and Egyptian cultures have a lot in common. However, some major differences can be found. Mayan religion was not obsessed with an afterlife beliefs as Egyptians were. Their pyramids were built either for Gods or as a memorial to the dead ruler or priest. Egyptians built their pyramids for the dead. Their buildings were meant to be used in the other life by the great spirits buried in them. Some visual differences also occur. Most of the Mayan pyramids are shorter then the ones at Giza site. They are not sealed forever but has an access for the priests and authorized people. The major difference is that Maya put the shrine right on top of the pyramid. The stairs led from the ground to the top of the pyramid. This way people thought they would be closer to God. In Egypt only pharaoh was considered to be closer to God therefore an enormous buildings reaching the sky was meant to be the stairway to the heaven only for the pharaoh. Nowadays these both ancient cultures still hold many mysteries for us. Most of the things we know are based on the speculations of the scientists, not on the certain facts. Archeologists working on discovering more and more about the ancient civilizations that existed thousand years ago but appeared much more advanced then we used to think about it. However, many of the documents, scripts and art evidences disappeared during such a long time. Robbers, invaders and weather were the reason for the huge loss of historical items that were kept in ancient Maya cities and along the Nile. I am sure that in the future many of the mysteries will be unfolded, but as for now, ancient people keep fascinate us with their enigmas.

Bigfoot paper free essay sample

Many people have claimed that theyVe seen Bigfoot, but has someone ever thought of Bigfoot as a real creature? Bigfoot has been recorded and reported for hundreds of years. For instance, in 2009 a group of scientists found tree destruction all over a mountain that Bigfoot supposedly roamed. Some trees were shredded 16 feet up. (The Bigfoot Disclosure Project). This goes to show that Bigfoot has been seen by civilians and the government needs to look into the situation. Hair samples have been taken in North America that cannot be linked to a specific animal. Where Does Bigfoot Live? ) This report shows that we have found physical evidence of the hairy beast. Bigfoot or Sasquatch is a real creature because we have recorded sightings, we have evidence that it is possibly related to humans, and we have found their footprints and droppings. To prove that Bigfoot is real, civilians have filed reports of what they have seen. We will write a custom essay sample on Bigfoot paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Most people claim theyVe seen Bigfoot itself. four dowsers were startled when they stopped along a trail to eat lunch and saw an enormous man walking toward them in he distance that was well over ten feet tall. He had long hair like Indians in the movies was covered in short black hair over the rest of his body. He carried what looked like a big rock. They left the area immediately. (Stevens) This goes to show that people have seen Bigfoot and it could be a serious problem. Highway 109, while gathering firewood for his grandmother in southern maine, the informant heard a noise behind him, he turned, expecting to see a moose. Some 30 feet behind him was a creature watching him and he split. (Stevens) But people have seen more than just the real thing. Scientists have run a couple DNA tests on physical evidence they found. Another reason why Bigfoot is real is that scientists have located their DNA. The DNA tests they ran showed that bigfoot was related to us. How did scientists prove that? In November of last year, a Texas veterinarian made national news claiming that genetic testing confirmed that not only is the legendary Bigfoot real, but is in fact a human relative that arose some 1 5,000 years ago. (Radford) How is Bigfoot related o us? A study by Melba S. Ketchum said,Our data indicate that the North American Sasquatch is a hybrid species, the result of males of an unknown hominin species crossing with female Homo sapiens. (Radford) But how does this evidence prove that Bigfoot is real? Well in order to run the DNA tests, they had to collect 111 samples of hair, mucus, toenails, blood, bark scrapings, saliva, and skin. They found all this evidence out in the wild! This evidence was also not related to any other known animal! In conclusion? Bigfoots real. Accept that fact. Scientists have found physical evidence that does not match any known animal. Such physical evidence includes: footprints, hair, mucus and other evidence. 1995 In Cornville, Maine, a man finds 17-inch footprints and reports it to physical evidence. The earliest record of potential Sasquatch footprints is dated 1811 when David Thompson, a trader and explorer, was seeking the mouth of the Columbia River. Crossing the Rockies at what is today Jasper, Alberta, he came upon a mysterious track in the snow.

Personal Essay Sample - Writing an Essay on Yourself

Personal Essay Sample - Writing an Essay on YourselfThere are many good books available on writing and researching your Columbia autobiographical essay sample. However, the best approach to help you learn the basics for your own personal essay is to have a good understanding of the style of writing that will be required in your personal essay. This article will discuss some of the key aspects of writing for the Columbia personal essay sample.Perhaps the most important part of writing for the Columbia personal essay sample is that the essay must include the research, and everything related to the research. The main research will be the person's background, beliefs, and lifestyle. Other research may be relevant, but this should be an integral part of the essay. Research is important for many reasons, but it is one of the most important to ensure the reader will take interest in the essay.As you write your personal essay sample, the research will become very important to you. You will n eed to research everything regarding the personality. You will need to understand the person's ideas, beliefs, and most importantly their personal style. It will help to read up on other essays in the same field. An even better way to research would be to read up on people and then dissecting what they write, by studying their personality traits.Another thing that will affect the personality of the personal essay sample is the style of writing. You will want to make sure you know how to format your essay. In writing an essay, it is vital to keep the essay to an article level, to be able to relate it to the course. You should avoid using footnotes to give the readers the information they are looking for, because it will really clutter up the essay.The personality of the personal essay sample is very important to the overall idea of the essay. You will want to keep in mind that no matter how unique or exciting a character is, it is just a character. The point of the essay will be to l et the reader see into the character's thoughts and feelings. With that being said, if you are writing about someone who has a unique style, then you should definitely try to include as much personality in the essay as possible.Finally, when writing your essay, the main goal is to let the reader relate to the individual in some way. This may take more thought, but the focus of the essay must be to show the reader how the person is, not how well they act or speak.Writing an essay for the Columbia personal essay sample is not that difficult, but there are some things to consider before you begin. By reading a few books on writing, research, and personality, it will greatly improve your chances of writing an interesting essay.